The holographic dark energy model. And the expansion of the universe.

"For the first ~3 billion years of cosmic history, the star-formation rate rose and rose until reaching a peak, but has fallen off significantly in the ~10-11 billion years since. Although an enormous number of photons have been cumulatively produced by stars, an even greater number were produced in the Big Bang" (Big Think, What created more light: the Big Bang or stars?)

The photons that the Big Bang sent have already left the universe. 

The thing is that the photons that we see cannot match the Big Bang light. The photon is the only thing that can reach the speed of light. That means those photons that the Big Bang sends are traveling ahead of the material. The second thing is that the Big Bang is not one single case. It was a series of events that formed material into the form that we know it. The thing that we can see is the last stage of the event, that formed the universe. 

The universe's expansion causes the form of energy levels in the environment to change. Those photons in the Big Bang were released in an absolute vacuum, which is impossible in our universe. Another thing is that at least most of those photons travel outside the universe ahead of the material. So it's possible. That we cannot even get observations about those photons. That means (almost) all photons that we see formed after the Big Bang. 

Materia cannot ever reach those photons that the Big Bang released. 

When we sometimes think about material like the possibility that the top quark and two bottom quarks form a hadronic structure and muons replace electrons that material is not possible in the modern universe. But in the young universe energy level was higher. And energy levels between particles and the environment were lower. 

In that young universe, it's possible that also other fermions than electrons and up and down quarks form material. But in the modern universe, the difference between energy levels of other fermionic particles and the environment is so high, that energy travels out from muon and those higher energy quarks is very fast. And that energy impulse destroys this material. Same way, muons and top and bottom quarks will decay very fast. 

The holographic dark energy model is one of the most interesting models of dark energy sources. Some researchers say we should not compare the holographic dark energy field with water. And those persons are right the holographic dark energy field is rather a vapor. But how do you model vapor that pulls objects with it?

When particle or wave movement travels in that holographic field it forms a channel. Then that field which could be the Higgs field flows back into that channel. That affects pack-tight or denser fields at that point. 

That quantum field closes all material (particles) and energy in the universe in it. The thing in this model is that the quantum field called the Higgs field is homogenously spread around the universe. When the universe expands the quantum fields turn weaker. And that means material always sends wave movement. 

The source of dark energy is in real or virtual particles. Things like standing waves are so-called virtual particles. In some models oscillation that quarks send into the middle of hadrons forms standing waves, the virtual particles that send energy waves around them. 

"The discovery of the Universe’s accelerated expansion led to the problematic dark energy concept. IKBFU scientists proposed a stable holographic model based on quantum principles, viewing the Universe as a holographic entity." (ScitechDaily, Holographic Dark Energy: A New Model for Understanding the Universe’s Expansion)

Because energy levels around particles decrease that increases the speed of energy flow away from particles. Sometimes those energy waves from standing waves. Those standing waves are like virtual particles until their energy level rises to so high level that the standing wave starts to send energy or wave movement around it. 

In standing waves, the symmetrically impacting wave movement fronts pack energy into one point. And when the energy level in that standing wave rises to high enough energy starts to flow away from it. 

Dark energy waves in the Higgs field are things that push particles away from each other.  The term dark energy means wave movement, which source is The most common theorem is that the source of this wave movement is in some tiny part of atoms. 

Those energy waves push atoms and also subatomic particles away from each other. When particles, or more accurately said, elementary particles send wave movement or energy waves they lose their mass. That means that those particles turn lighter. Also, the material turns lighter. This makes the gravity effect weaker. 

In some other models, the colder point in the Higgs field forms a situation in which the field starts to move. And in the case of dark energy, the thing is in the movement of the Higgs field which is the base energy level or energy bottom or energy minimum in the universe. 

"Timeline of the expansion of the universe, where space, including hypothetical non-observable portions of the universe, is represented at each time by the circular sections. On the left, the dramatic expansion occurs in the inflationary epoch; and at the center, the expansion accelerates (artist's concept; neither time nor size are to scale)." (Wikipedia, Big Bang)

The density of energy and material compared to space decreases when the universe expands. Or the material is one form of energy. It's packed wave movement that antimatter impacts are proving. When antimatter- and material particles impact, that turns both things into wave movement.

When somebody asks which one was brighter the Big Bang or all stars in the universe, we must say that all light and material released in that thing. Or all materials and wave movement that can interact with 3D material released in the Big Bang event. So in the young universe, the light and energy were in the same area. Then some part of the energy turned into particles. 

That means all energy and material that the Big Bang released are in the larger area. That means energy density in the modern universe is lower or otherways saying, the universe is colder. Because all energy that it involves must be in the larger space. 

In many models, the universe is like a bubble in the middle of nowhere or a great vacuum. The energy level in the universe is always higher than outside it. So energy travels out from the universe symmetrically out from its borders. 

And that energy flow forms wave movement that pulls the most out particles in the universe away from the point, where the Big Bang happened. So we should not compare the universe with a balloon where we blow air. We should compare it with a balloon that is in the vacuum chamber. 

The balloon expands until it explodes. In cosmological models, air is the energy and material and the vacuum is space around the universe. All energy and material that we know involves the universe. There is no other energy and material source than the Big Bang. So when the balloon expands and there is no outside gas coming that means the pressure in the balloon decreases. 

Because all energy and wave movement that we know is in the universe the distance between particles and superstrings grows. That means the material and energy density in the universe decreases because space is compared with material and expansion of the universe means that there is the same energy and material that the Big Bang released but in a larger area. And that means there is less material and energy when we compare those things with the situation at the beginning of the universe. 

https://bigthink.com/starts-with-a-bang/more-light-big-bang-stars/

https://scitechdaily.com/holographic-dark-energy-a-new-model-for-understanding-the-universes-expansion/

https://www.space.com/25126-big-bang-theory.html

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_energy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermion

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muon

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quark

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Model

Superphotons or photonic Bose-Einstein condensate can create an ultra-secured data network.

"Thousands of light particles can merge into a type of “super photon” under certain conditions. Researchers at the University of Bonn have now been able to use “tiny nano molds” to influence the design of this so-called Bose-Einstein condensate. This enables them to shape the speck of light into a simple lattice structure consisting of four points of light arranged in quadratic form. Such structures could potentially be used in the future to make the exchange of information between multiple participants tap-proof. Credit: SciTechDaily.com" (ScitechDaily, Super Photons Unveiled: Sculpting Light Into Unbreakable Communication Networks)

"When numerous light particles are cooled to a very low temperature and simultaneously confined in a compact space, they suddenly become indistinguishable from one another and behave like a single super photon. Physicists call this a Bose-Einstein condensate and it normally resembles a blurry speck of light. “However, we have now managed to imprint a simple lattice structure on the condensate,” says Andreas Redmann from the Institute of Applied Physics (IAP) at the University of Bonn." (ScitechDaily, Super Photons Unveiled: Sculpting Light Into Unbreakable Communication Networks)

"The researchers at the IAP create super photons by filling a tiny container with a dye solution. The side walls of the container are reflective. If the dye molecules are excited with a laser, they produce photons that bounce back and forth between the reflective surfaces. These light particles start off relatively warm. However, they repeatedly collide with the dye molecules as they move between the reflective surfaces and cool down until they finally condense to form a super photon." (ScitechDaily, Super Photons Unveiled: Sculpting Light Into Unbreakable Communication Networks)

In extremely low temperatures conditions are very stable. And in that stable cold photons can make similar structures as atoms. When the energy level of photons is very low, that denies the oscillation or oscillation transfer to another photon. When photons are in the lowest possible energy levels their quantum fields expand like in Bose-Einstein condensate. That thing leaves space for a photon to move inside its quantum field. The low energy quantum field cannot transmit oscillation like in normal energy levels. And that makes photons to look like stable. 

"Shown on the left in an exaggerated form; the reflective surface is facing upwards), the researchers were able to imprint a structure onto the photon condensate (right). Credit: IAP / University of Bonn" (ScitechDaily, Super Photons Unveiled: Sculpting Light Into Unbreakable Communication Networks)

The second image introduces a very low temperature from the energy cup, that closes photons inside it. Because the energy level is lower than in the environment. Energy travels to those photons. That denies the outside sensors to see them.  And that makes it impossible to break that data transportation from outside. 

The low-energy area does not let photons go away from it. And that makes the superphoton possible. There are information transportation and sensor roles to that very strange material. In sensors, electromagnetic wave movement oscillates those photons. And that can help to detect extremely low energy signals. 

The photon crystals or super photons are the photonic version of Bose-Einstein condensate. The ability to create this kind of structure by manipulating light makes it possible to create an unbreakable quantum network. The photonic version of Bose-Einstein condensate is possible in the case, that photons energy levels are very low. That energy field or "shine" around photons is large but the most out layers are in a very low energy level. That causes a situation in which a photon's oscillation doesn't have so hard effect on another photon because that happens through the minimum energy quantum fields. 

In photon-, or photonic crystals all photons are in the same quantum field. When those weak quantum fields connect to each other, they turn stronger. Closing those photons inside one quantum field, and because the energy level in photons is lower than in the energy field around them, those photons are locked as one entirety. So that means photons can form crystal-like structures, that transport information with very high safety. 

https://scitechdaily.com/super-photons-unveiled-sculpting-light-into-unbreakable-communication-networks/

Neutron star collisions open secrets of the universe.

"Researchers use supercomputer simulations to study remnants formed by neutron star collisions. These remnants cool through neutrino emissions, and their structure offers insights into the behavior of nuclear matter and the possibility of preventing black hole formation. Credit: SciTechDaily.com" (ScitechDaily, Neutron Star Collisions: Unmasking the Ghosts of Gravity)

Prologue: neutrons can be the key to the ultimate strong quantum materials. 

Graphene is one of the most fundamental materials in the world. That material is a 2D carbon lattice. And that makes graphene one of the most fundamental materials in the world. Graphene has a problem. It is monoatomic strucutre. And when something hits it, the energy can form standing waves inside the graphene ring. 

If we could put nanocrystals made of silicone or iron into the graphene rings those things can transport energy away from the layer. And that metamaterial can also make it possible for developers can create new types of loudspeakers. That kind of structure where nanocrystals make pressure or sound waves can also make acoustic levitation possible. But what if we would press that material into quantum mode? 

One of the most promising versions of those futuristic quantum materials is "neutron graphene". The neutron graphene is the quantum version of the graphene. That material got its inspiration from neutron stars. 

There is a theoretical possibility of creating a similar 2D neutron network made of neutrons. If we can put protons between those neutron strings, that thing makes neutron steel, the extreme quantum version of steel. Those protons inside holes between neutron networks pull the energy of the standing waves that can form in that hypothetical neutron structure into themselves. In that structure, the protons form the points that deny the forming of a standing wave. 

The kilonovas open the secrets of the neutron stars. And theoretically, it's possible to use small neutron balls as the energy sources. The problem is how to tie those neutrons together. Or the system can use single neutrons as energy sources. Because neurons have polarity, or, they have N and S-poles they can form the "neutron graphene" if the N-pole is against the other neutron's S pole. That thing pulls neutrons together. 

Neutron-star collisions called: kilonovas are the most powerful things in the universe. Neutron stars are the densest objects in the universe. When those heavy, and dense objects collide. Collisions release very high power energy impulses that can make even gravity fields quake. The origin of the neutron stars is in supernova explosions, where all particles in the star turn into neutrons. 

Neutron star collisions release energy of weak nuclear force. Same way, fission releases weak nuclear force but the homogenous neutron structure means that kilonova releases more energy in a shorter time than regular fission. 

The electrons and protons neutralize each other's electric polarity and they turn into neutrons. So technically, neutron stars are like giant neutrons. When neutron stars collide that impact releases energy that is stored in the neutron star's structures. When two neutrons impact that collisions stretch the quantum field around them. 

Above: Graphene structure where carbon atoms form a 2D honeycomb net structure. At least in theory, neutrons can also create similar structures on a smaller scale. 

That thing forms the quantum low-pressure into the quantum field, and that pulls quarks away from each other. If the expansion of the quantum field is too high, that rips quarks too long distance from each other. And quarks can go through that quantum field. The neutron star collisions cause so dense energy impact, that it can interact straight with the Higgs field. And we can say that the gravity wave is the wave in the Higgs field. 

Neutron stars are things that open the mysteries in the shadows of gravity. When we say that the neutron star's internal structures are expanding, we forget that the expansion happens also in bonds between neutrons. Neutron stars are homogenous objects. When energy hits them, there is no space where it can go. That makes the neutron star an extreme version of the iron ball. Iron balls are extremely strong, but they are fragile. 

If we push those balls symmetrically from every point the ball stands that thing. Or, of course, energy travels into the center of the ball. Then it reflects from the ball's center. Can the ball keep its form depending on the situation can the energy that reflects from inside it push its atoms long enough from each other that breaks the bonds between particles? 

We can compare neutron stars with iron balls. 

When some energy impulse hits those balls into the small area, that transfers energy impulse to those iron atoms. Then those atoms start to oscillate and push other atoms away from each other. The energy can flow between atoms and break the structure. Same way neutron stars are hard but same way fragile. In the neutron stars, neutrons replaced atoms. If a neutron beam hits to neutron star, that thing can break the structure. The question of whether that thing breaks the structure depends on the gravity wins the energy impulse. 

In atoms, energy can go into protons if neutrons impact. The thing that causes fission is that in fissile material is a large number of neutrons. When a neutron impacts, for example, plutonium, an atom those neutrons send an energy wave through the atom's nucleus. Those energy waves form standing waves between neutrons, and then that energy pushes neutrons away from each other. 

The difference between plutonium and neutron stars is this. Part of the atom nucleus is formed of protons. Those protons are acting as energy pockets. But in neutron stars, there are no protons. There are no energy pockets, and impact wave travels through the neutron structures. Nothing can turn it weaker. Abd that makes an extremely powerful explosion. 

https://scitechdaily.com/neutron-star-collisions-unmasking-the-ghosts-of-gravity/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphene

Can dark matter interact in some other ways than just through gravity?

Dark matter is a wonderful thing. Its only known interaction is through gravity. And that thing makes it a remarkable thing. Then, we can start to think about the shape of dark matter. 

Researchers think that dark matter has a particle form. The name of that particle is a weakly interacting massive particle, WIMP. But are WIMPs real or virtual particles? We could say, that WIMP is the quantum gravitational center for an unknown gravitational effect called dark matter. And that means black holes are groups of WIMPs. 

We cannot observe the system in its entirety if we are in the system. This makes it hard to detect the Higgs field. We are in the Higgs field. And that's why we cannot detect it. In this model, gravity is the movement in the Higgs field. 

We can say that gravity is the hole or low-energy area, or some void in Higgs field, that can tell about the shape of dark matter. The reason why the Higgs field or base energy field is so hard to detect is that we are in that field. We must get out of the field so that we can detect it. In the same way, we can think that the entire universe is full of air that we can breathe because we are in the Earth's atmosphere. 

Earth's atmosphere is less than a microscopic part of the solar system. But because we are in it. We think that the atmosphere is enormous. The thing is like this we can sit in the castle above clouds. If we ever go out of that castle, we can think: it's enormous. In that case, the castle is our entire world. In the same way, people think that Earth is enormous because spend here our entire life. 

We can make measurements of the Earth's atmosphere and energy fields only by stepping out from them. And it took over 90 years to detect Earth's electric field. And finally, we can say that the Earth's atmosphere is quite thick. But if we compare our atmosphere with Venus, we can say that our atmosphere is thin. 

That means everything is relative. We can always take something bigger or heavier to say, that something is small or light. We can say that our sun is very cold if we compare it with Spica. But same way, we can think that our sun is very hot. If we compare it with Proxima Centauri. And the Earth's global electric field can be very weak. But it has a crucial role, in turning ions away from Earth's atmosphere. That means the weak effect can be important. 

The dark matter can be some kind of group of low-energy bubbles in the Higgs field. That means there is an object that interacts only with the Higgs field. In that model, the WIMP might look like the neutron star or black hole, but it's far smaller. 

Like other particles and objects, WIMP doesn't create any energy form. It just collects wave movement or field into it. Energy is wave movement. And the wavelength determines the name of the energy. All four fundamental forces, gravity, electromagnetism, and weak and strong nuclear forces are wave movements. That travels in the universe. And the wavelength separates them from each other.  

And if we think that Higgs field is like water and gravity is the effect. That makes Higgs field travel to the gravitational center. In that model, particles flow in a Higgs field that travels to the gravitational center. When we think that the gravity center focuses Higgs field gravity center must get the Higgs field from somewhere. That means it collects that field and then that field can travel away from the spin axle. 

The idea is that the WIMP can be an extremely slight particle. So it cannot touch or send wave movement away from it like visible particles. That particle could aim the Higgs field from its "equator" to the spin axle.  If we think that visible particles look like whisk. The superstrings are around the electromagnetic low pressure. The outside energy presses that structure into the form called a particle. And sometimes particles let an outside energy field go between those superstrings. That thing causes wave movement that travels away from the particle. The idea is like spinning a whisk in the water. 

But in this case, the hypothetical WIMP could be so tight that it cannot let the outside energy and wave movement go between those superstrings. And that thing denies the wave movement from those particles. Or, otherways saying, all energy that WIMP collects travels into its spin axle and then it travels to the universe in the form of a thin energy pike. That could explain the dark energy or at least part of it. 

https://bigthink.com/starts-with-a-bang/dark-matter-interact-non-gravitationally/

https://science.nasa.gov/science-research/heliophysics/nasa-discovers-long-sought-global-electric-field-on-earth/

See also:

Higgs field

Fundamental interaction

The standard model of physics